The Migration in the Post Cold War Period Free Essay Example, 5000 words

The emergence of the Cold War- one of the longest wars in the history of mankind changed the situation of the geopolitical history of the world. The erstwhile USSR or the Soviet Union broke into various other countries and there was mass immigration between the countries. After the completion of the Cold War, the migration of the human beings from one region to the other went on to become a chief political factor for the various countries and stringent laws were developed for restricting the mass immigration. The paper will deal with the changes in the scope of the migration post-Cold War and will see if there is anything new about the change. (Manning, 2005: Pp 157-165). Migration has been important in the development of the human civilization of the modern world. It was in the prehistoric age that the people from the different parts of the world migrated to the fertile lands near the rivers and the seas. This was done to develop the means of the livelihood and civilizations develo ped along the rivers. These civilizations were the bases for the existence of the human civilization. We will write a custom essay sample on The Migration in the Post Cold War Period or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now Therefore, migration can be said to have played a big part in the development of human civilization. The earliest known man lived in the continent of Africa on the banks of the Nile and Central Africa. The main livelihood of the natives was hunting. Four groups from the group leaving in the region went to the other parts of the continent. The group, which went to the northern part of Africa, crossed the continent and went toward Asia. However, the group died because of a natural calamity, which turned the area into the snow. The area turned to desert and the people died of hunger. 85,000 years ago, another group of people from the region crossed the Red Sea and went towards the plains of Asia. The people of the Non-African origin is being borne out of them. They went to the continent of Asia and covered the plains of India. They were traveling down the shore of the Indian Ocean.

In The Nature Episode We Were Introduced To Yosemite National

In the Nature episode we were introduced to Yosemite National park, located in the heart of California’s Sierra Nevada mountains stretching the distance of California. The Sierra Nevada is known for its harsh climates, beautiful landscape, and the incredible Yosemite valley. In this nature episode we saw how global warming is affecting the Sierra Nevada ecosystem due to the devastating drought in California. The episode starts with hang gliders setting their gliders up, and gliding above the valley this is a form of kinetic energy after they have built potential energy up running down the little cliff and gliding releasing energy. When gliding over the valley the glider can see many waterfalls and rivers carved out in the valley. One of†¦show more content†¦To make matters worse California is in the middle of a devastating drought, causing many forest fires. But these trees remain unfazed, as a matter of fact fire is an innate part of this ecosystems, many animals d epend on fires for survival like the black-backed woodpecker who their main source of food are tree inhabiting beetles. When the bark is chard this helps the woodpecker find its food easier. Unlike a lot of other trees sequoias need fire to reproduce. The fire also does 3 things for the sequoias: it heats up and opens the cones releasing seeds, second,the fire makes and opening in the canopy of the trees to allow sunlight to shine through, and finally, the fire gives the sequoias seeds a nutrient rich place to grow (Yosemite, 2017). When winter comes around the ice pack covers the seeds allowing the seeds to be in the right condition to start the process of germination. In the episode they talk to a forest ecologist that works for the U.S geological survey, his job is to monitor the trees response to the drought and in recent years by recording the water content in the clippings they have found that the water content is decreasing. Which is a warning sign that the tree might be dyin g or under stress from the drought. When a sequoia is healthy is clippings are green and have a higher water content, but since the water content is decreasing that the amount of water to keep the cells at anShow MoreRelatedDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesWorksheet 661 APPENDIX I GLOSSARY 673 683 APPENDIX II REFERENCES NAME INDEX 705 709 713 SUBJECT INDEX COMBINED INDEX xvi CONTENTS P R E FA C E What’s New in This Edition? Based on suggestions from reviewers, instructors, and students we have made a number of changes in the eighth edition of Developing Management Skills. †¢ Added new skill assessments in Chapter 1 and a new case in Chapter 3. †¢ Revised parts of the book to reflect suggestions and feedback from instructors and students

Live and Let Live Free Essays

string(40) " is available by using %telnet sri-nic\." The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet 1 The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet Ed Krol krol@uxc. cso. uiuc. We will write a custom essay sample on Live and Let Live or any similar topic only for you Order Now edu Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet 2 This document was produced through funding of the National Science Foundation. Copyright (C) 1987, by the Board of Trustees of The University of Illinois. Permission to duplicate this document, in whole or part, is granted provided reference is made to the source and this copyright is included in whole copies. This document assumes that one is familiar with the workings of a non-connected simple IP network (e. . a few 4. 2 BSD systems on an Ethernet not connected to anywhere else). Appendix A contains remedial information to get one to this point. Its purpose is to get that person, familiar with a simple net, versed in the â€Å"oral tradition† of the Internet to the point that that net can be connected to the Internet with little danger to either. It is not a tutorial, it consists of pointers to other places, literature, and hints which are not norm ally documented. Since the Internet is a dynamic environment, changes to this document will be made regularly. The author welcomes comments and suggestions. This is especially true of terms for the glossary (definitions are not necessary). In the beginning there was the ARPAnet, a wide area experimental network connecting hosts and terminal servers together. Procedures were set up to regulate the allocation of addresses and to create voluntary standards for the network. As local area networks became more pervasive, many hosts became gateways to local networks. A network layer to allow the interoperation of these networks was developed and called IP (Internet Protocol). Over time other groups created long haul IP based networks (NASA, NSF, states†¦ ). These nets, too, interoperate because of IP. The collection of all of these interoperating networks is the Internet. Two groups do much of the research and information work of the Internet (ISI and SRI). ISI (the Informational Sciences Institute) does much of the research, standardization, and allocation work of the Internet. SRI International provides information services for the Internet. In fact, after you are connected to the Internet most of the information in this document can be retrieved from the Network Information Center (NIC) run by SRI. Operating the Internet Each network, be it the ARPAnet, NSFnet or a regional network, has its own operations center. The ARPAnet is run by Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet BBN, Inc. under contract from DARPA. Their facility is called the Network Operations Center or NOC. Cornell University temporarily operates NSFnet (called the Network Information Service Center, NISC). It goes on to the -2regionals having similar facilities to monitor and keep watch over the goings on of their portion of the Internet. In addition, they all should have some knowledge of what is happening to the Internet in total. If a problem comes up, it is suggested that a campus network liaison should contact the network operator to which he is directly connected. That is, if you are connected to a regional network (which is gatewayed to the NSFnet, which is connected to the ARPAnet†¦ ) and have a problem, you should contact your regional network operations center. 3 RFCs The internal workings of the Internet are defined by a set of documents called RFCs (Request for Comments). The general process for creating an RFC is for someone wanting something formalized to write a document describing the issue and mailing it to Jon Postel (postel@isi. edu). He acts as a referee for the proposal. It is then commented upon by all those wishing to take part in the discussion (electronically of course). It may go through multiple revisions. Should it be generally accepted as a good idea, it will be assigned a number and filed with the RFCs. The RFCs can be divided into five groups: required, suggested, directional, informational and obsolete. Required RFC’s (e. g. RFC-791, The Internet Protocol) must be implemented on any host connected to the Internet. Suggested RFCs are generally implemented by network hosts. Lack of them does not preclude access to the Internet, but may impact its usability. RFC-793 (Transmission Control Protocol) is a suggested RFC. Directional RFCs were discussed and agreed to, but their application has never come into wide use. This may be due to the lack of wide need for the specific application (RFC-937 The Post Office Protocol) or that, although technically superior, ran against other pervasive approaches (RFC-891 Hello). It is suggested that should the facility be required by a particular site, animplementation be done in accordance with the RFC. This insures that, should the idea be one whose time has come, the implementation will be in accordance with some standard and will be generally usable. Informational RFCs contain factual information about the Internet and its operation (RFC-990, Assigned Numbers). Finally, as the Internet and technology have grown, some RFCs have become unnecessary. These obsolete RFCs cannot be ignored, however. Frequently when a change is made to some RFC that causes a new one to be issued obsoleting others, the new RFC only contains explanations and motivations for the change. Understanding the model on which the whole facility is based may involve reading the original and subsequent RFCs Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet on the topic. -3(Appendix B contains a list of what are considered to be the major RFCs necessary for understanding the Internet). 4 The Network Information Center The NIC is a facility available to all Internet users which provides information to the community. There are three means of NIC contact: network, telephone, and mail. The network accesses are the most prevalent. Interactive access is frequently used to do queries of NIC service overviews, look up user and host names, and scan lists of NIC documents. It is available by using %telnet sri-nic. You read "Live and Let Live" in category "Papers" rpa on a BSD system and following the directions provided by a user friendly prompter. From poking around in the databases provided one might decide that a document named NETINFO:NUG. DOC (The Users Guide to the ARPAnet) would be worth having. It could be retrieved via an anonymous FTP. An anonymous FTP would proceed something like the following. (Th e dialogue may vary slightly depending on the implementation of FTP you are using). %ftp sri-nic. arpa Connected to sri-nic. arpa. 220 SRI_NIC. ARPA FTP Server Process 5Z(47)-6 at Wed 17-Jun-87 12:00 PDT Name (sri-nic. arpa:myname): anonymous 331 ANONYMOUS user ok, send real ident as password. Password: myname 230 User ANONYMOUS logged in at Wed 17-Jun-87 12:01 PDT, job 15. ftp; get netinfo:nug. doc 200 Port 18. 144 at host 128. 174. 5. 50 accepted. 150 ASCII retrieve of NUG. DOC. 11 started. 226 Transfer Completed 157675 (8) bytes transferred local: netinfo:nug. doc remote:netinfo:nug. doc 157675 bytes in 4. 5e+02 seconds (0. 34 Kbytes/s) ftp; quit 221 QUIT command received. Goodbye. (Another good initial document to fetch is NETINFO:WHAT-THE-NIC-DOES. TXT)! Questions of the NIC or problems with services can be asked of or reported to using electronic mail. The following addresses can be used: NIC@SRI-NIC. ARPA requests REGISTRAR@SRI-NIC. ARPA General user assistance, document User registration and WHOIS updates Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet HOSTMASTER@SRI-NIC. ARPA Hostname and domain changes and updates ACTION@SRI-NIC. ARPA SRI-NIC computer operations SUGGESTIONS@SRI-NIC. ARPA Comments on NIC publications and services -4For people without network access, or if the number of documents is large, many of the NIC documents are available in printed form for a small charge. One frequently ordered document for starting sites is a compendium of major RFCs. Telephone access is used primarily for questions or problems with network access. (See appendix B for mail/telephone contact numbers). 5 The NSFnet Network Service Center The NSFnet Network Service Center (NNSC) is funded by NSF to provide a first level of aid to users of NSFnet should they have questions or encounter problems traversing the network. It is run by BBN Inc. Karen Roubicek (roubicek@nnsc. nsf. net) is the NNSC user liaison. The NNSC, which currently has information and documents online and in printed form, plans to distribute news through network mailing lists, bulletins, newsletters, and online reports. The NNSC also maintains a database of contact points and sources of additional information about NSFnet component networks and supercomputer centers. Prospective or current users who do not know whom to call concerning questions about NSFnet use, should contact the NNSC. The NNSC will answer general questions, and, for detailed information relating to specific components of the Internet, will help users find the appropriate contact for further assistance. (Appendix B) Mail Reflectors The way most people keep up to date on network news is through subscription to a number of mail reflectors. Mail reflectors are special electronic mailboxes which, when they receive a message, resend it to a list of other mailboxes. This in effect creates a discussion group on a particular topic. Each subscriber sees all the mail forwarded by the reflector, and if one wants to put his â€Å"two cents† in sends a message with the comments to the reflector†¦. The general format to subscribe to a mail list is to find the address reflector and append the string -REQUEST to the mailbox name (not the host name). For example, if you wanted to take part in the mailing list for NSFnet reflected by NSFNET@NNSC. NSF. NET, one sends a request to Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet -5NSFNET-REQUEST@NNSC. NSF. NET. This may be a wonderful scheme, but the problem is that you must know the list exists in the first place. It is suggested that, if you are interested, you read the mail from one list (like NSFNET) and you will probably become familiar with the existence of others. A registration service for mail reflectors is provided by the NIC in the files NETINFO:INTEREST-GROUPS-1. TXT, NETINFO:INTEREST-GROUPS-2. TXT, and NETINFO:INTEREST-GROUPS3. TXT. The NSFNET mail reflector is targeted at those people who have a day to day interest in the news of the NSFnet (the backbone, regional network, and Internet inter-connection site workers). The messages are reflected by a central location and are sent as separate messages to each subscriber. This creates hundreds of messages on the wide area networks where bandwidth is the scarcest. There are two ways in which a campus could spread the news and not cause these messages to inundate the wide area networks. One is to re-reflect the message on the campus. That is, set up a reflector on a local machine which forwards the message to a campus distribution list. The other is to create an alias on a campus machine which places the messages into a notesfile on the topic. Campus users who want the information could access the notesfile and see the messages that have been sent since their last access. One might also elect to have the campus wide area network liaison screen the messages in either case and only forward those which are considered of merit. Either of these schemes allows one message to be sent to the campus, while allowing wide distribution within. Address Allocation Before a local network can be connected to the Internet it must be allocated a unique IP address. These addresses are allocated by ISI. The allocation process consists of getting an application form received from ISI. (Send a message to hostmaster@sri-nic. arpa and ask for the template for a connected address). This template is filled out and mailed back to hostmaste r. An address is allocated and e-mailed back to you. This can also be done by postal mail (Appendix B). IP addresses are 32 bits long. It is usually written as four decimal numbers separated by periods (e. . , 192. 17. 5. 100). Each number is the value of an octet of the 32 bits. It was seen from the beginning that some networks might choose to organize themselves as very flat (one net with a lot of nodes) and some might organize hierarchically -6(many interconnected nets with fewer nodes each and a backbone). Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet To provide for these cases, addresses were differentiated into class A, B, and C networks. This classification had to with the interpretation of the octets. Class A networks have the first octet as a network address and the remaining three as a host address on that network. Class C addresses have three octets of network address and one of host. Class B is split two and two. Therefore, there is an address space for a few large nets, a reasonable number of medium nets and a large number of small nets. The top two bits in the first octet are coded to tell the address format. All of the class A nets have been allocated. So one has to choose between Class B and Class C when placing an order. (There are also class D (Multicast) and E (Experimental) formats. Multicast addresses will likely come into greater use in the near future, but are not frequently used now). In the past sites requiring multiple network addresses requested multiple discrete addresses (usually Class C). This was done because much of the software available (not ably 4. 2BSD) could not deal with subnetted addresses. Information on how to reach a particular network (routing information) must be stored in Internet gateways and packet switches. Some of these nodes have a limited capability to store and exchange routing information (limited to about 300 networks). Therefore, it is suggested that any campus announce (make known to the Internet) no more than two discrete network numbers. If a campus expects to be constrained by this, it should consider subnetting. Subnetting (RFC-932) allows one to announce one address to the Internet and use a set of addresses on the campus. Basically, one defines a mask which allows the network to differentiate between the network portion and host portion of the address. By using a different mask on the Internet and the campus, the address can be interpreted in multiple ways. For example, if a campus requires two networks internally and has the 32,000 addresses beginning 128. 174. X. X (a Class B address) allocated to it, the campus could allocate 128. 174. 5. X to one part of campus and 128. 174. 10. X to another. By advertising 128. 174 to the Internet with a subnet mask of FF. FF. 00. 00, the Internet would treat these two addresses as one. Within the campus a mask of FF. FF. FF. 00 would be used, allowing the campus to treat the addresses as separate entities. (In reality you don’t pass the subnet mask of FF. FF. 00. 0 to the Internet, the octet meaning is implicit in its being a class B address). A word of warning is necessary. Not all systems know how to do subnetting. Some 4. 2BSD systems require additional software. 4. 3BSD systems subnet as released. Other devices -7and operating systems vary in the problems they have dealing with subnets. Frequently these machines can be used as a leaf on a network but not as a gateway within the subnette d portion of the network. As time passes and more systems become 4. 3BSD based, these problems should disappear. 7 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. om The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet There has been some confusion in the past over the format of an IP broadcast address. Some machines used an address of all zeros to mean broadcast and some all ones. This was confusing when machines of both type were connected to the same network. The broadcast address of all ones has been adopted to end the grief. Some systems (e. g. 4. 2 BSD) allow one to choose the format of the broadcast address. If a system does allow this choice, care should be taken that the all ones format is chosen. (This is explained in RFC-1009 and RFC-1010). 8 Internet Problems There are a number of problems with the Internet. Solutions to the problems range from software changes to long term research projects. Some of the major ones are detailed below: Number of Networks When the Internet was designed it was to have about 50 connected networks. With the explosion of networking, the number is now approaching 300. The software in a group of critical gateways (called the core gateways of the ARPAnet) are not able to pass or store much more than that number. In the short term, core reallocation and recoding has raised the number slightly. By the summer of ’88 the current PDP-11 core gateways will be replaced with BBN Butterfly gateways which will solve the problem. Routing Issues Along with sheer mass of the data necessary to route packets to a large number of networks, there are many problems with the updating, stability, and optimality of the routing algorithms. Much research is being done in the area, but the optimal solution to these routing problems is still years away. In most cases the the routing we have today works, but sub-optimally and sometimes unpredictably. -8- Trust Issues Gateways exchange network routing information. Currently, most gateways accept on faith that the information provided about the state of the network is correct. In the past this was not a big problem since most of the gateways belonged to a single administrative entity (DARPA). Now with multiple wide area networks under different administrations, a rogue gateway somewhere in the net could cripple the Internet. There is design work going on to solve both the problem of Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet gateway doing unreasonable things and providing enough information to reasonably route data between multiply connected networks (multi-homed networks). Capacity Congestion Many portions of the ARPAnet are very congested during the busy part of the day. Additional links are planned to alleviate this congestion, but the implementation will take a few months. 9 These problems and the future direction of the Internet are determined by the Internet Architect (Dave Clark of MIT) being advised by the Internet Activities Board (IAB). This board is composed of chairmen of a number of committees with responsibility for various specialized areas of the Internet. The committees composing the IAB and their chairmen are: Committee Chair Autonomous Networks Deborah Estrin End-to-End Services Bob Braden Internet Architecture Dave Mills Internet Engineering Phil Gross EGP2 Mike Petry Name Domain Planning Doug Kingston Gateway Monitoring Craig Partridge Internic Jake Feinler Performance Congestion ControlRobert Stine NSF Routing Chuck Hedrick Misc. MilSup Issues Mike St. Johns Privacy Steve Kent IRINET Requirements Vint Cerf Robustness Survivability Jim Mathis Scientific Requirements Barry Leiner Note that under Internet Engineering, there are a set of task forces and chairs to look at short term concerns. The chairs of these task forces are not part of the IAB. -9Routing Routing is the algorithm by which a network directs a packet from its source to its destination. To appreciate the problem, watch a small child trying to find a table in a restaurant. From the adult point of view the structure of the dining room is seen and an optimal route easily chosen. The child, however, is presented with a set of paths between tables where a good path, let alone the optimal one to the goal is not discernible. *** A little more background might be appropriate. IP gateways (more correctly routers) are boxes which have connections to multiple networks and pass traffic between these nets. They decide how the packet is to be sent based on the information in the IP header of the packet and the state of the network. Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet Each interface on a router has an unique address appropriate to the network to which it is connected. The information in the IP header which is used is primarily the destination address. Other information (e. g. type of service) is largely ignored at this time. The state of the network is determined by the routers passing information among themselves. The distribution of the database (what each node knows), the form of the updates, and metrics used to measure the value of a connection, are the parameters which determine the characteristics of a routing protocol. Under some algorithms each node in the network has complete knowledge of the state of the network (the adult algorithm). This implies the nodes must have larger amounts of local storage and enough CPU to search the large tables in a short enough time (remember this must be done for each packet). Also, routing updates usually contain only changes to the existing information (or you spend a large amount of the network capacity passing around megabyte routing updates). This type of algorithm has several problems. Since the only way the routing information can be passed around is across the network and the propagation time is non-trivial, the view of the network at each node is a correct historical view of the network at varying times in the past. The adult algorithm, but rather than looking directly at the dining area, looking at a photograph of the dining room. One is likely to pick the optimal route and find a bus-cart has moved in to block the path after the photo was taken). These inconsistencies can cause circular routes (called routing loops) where once a packet enters it is routed in a closed path until its time to live (TTL) field expires and it is discarded. Other algorithms may know about only a subset of the network. To prevent loops in these protocols, they are usually used in a hierarchical network. They know completely about their own area, but to leave that area they go to one particular place (the default gateway). Typically these are used in smaller networks (campus, regional†¦ ). -10Routing protocols in current use: Static (no protocol-table/default routing) Don’t laugh. It is probably the most reliable, easiest to implement, and least likely to get one into trouble for a small network or a leaf on the Internet. This is, also, the only method available on some CPU-operating system combinations. If a host is connected to an Ethernet which has only one gateway off of it, one should make that the default gateway for the host and do no other routing. (Of course that gateway may pass the reachablity information somehow on the other side of itself). One word of warning, it is only with extreme caution that one should use static routes in the middle of a network 10 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet which is also using dynamic routing. The routers passing dynamic information are sometimes confused by conflicting dynamic and static routes. If your host is on an ethernet with multiple routers to other networks on it and the routers are doing dynamic routing among themselves, it is usually better to take part in the dynamic routing than to use static routes. 11 RIP RIP is a routing protocol based on XNS (Xerox Network System) adapted for IP networks. It is used by many routers (Proteon, cisco, UB†¦ ) and many BSD Unix systems BSD systems typically run a program called â€Å"routed† to exchange information with other systems running RIP. RIP works best for nets of small diameter where the links are of equal speed. The reason for this is that the metric used to determine which path is best is the hop-count. A hop is a traversal across a gateway. So, all machines on the same Ethernet are zero hops away. If a router connects connects two networks directly, a machine on the other side of the router is one hop away†¦. As the routing information is passed through a gateway, the gateway adds one to the hop counts to keep them consistent across the network. The diameter of a network is defined as the largest hop-count possible within a network. Unfortunately, a hop count of 16 is defined as infinity in RIP meaning the link is down. Therefore, RIP will not allow hosts separated by more than 15 gateways in the RIP space to communicate. The other problem with hop-count metrics is that if links have different speeds, that difference is not -11reflected in the hop-count. So a one hop satellite link (with a . 5 sec delay) at 56kb would be used instead of a two hop T1 connection. Congestion can be viewed as a decrease in the efficacy of a link. So, as a link gets more congested, RIP will still know it is the best hop-count route and congest it even more by throwing more packets on the queue for that link. The protocol is not well documented. A group of people are working on producing an RFC to both define the current RIP and to do some extensions to it to allow it to better cope with larger networks. Currently, the best documentation for RIP appears to be the code to BSD â€Å"routed†. Routed The ROUTED program, which does RIP for 4. 2BSD systems, Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet has many options. One of the most frequently used is: â€Å"routed -q† (quiet mode) which means listen to RIP information but never broadcast it. This would be used by a machine on a network with multiple RIP speaking gateways. It allows the host to determine which gateway is best (hopwise) to use to reach a distant network. (Of course you might want to have a default gateway to prevent having to pass all the addresses known to the Internet around with RIP). There are two ways to insert static routes into â€Å"routed†, the â€Å"/etc/gateways† file and the â€Å"route add† command. Static routes are useful if you know how to reach a distant network, but you are not receiving that route using RIP. For the most part the â€Å"route add† command is preferable to use. The reason for this is that the command adds the route to that machine’s routing table but does not export it through RIP. The â€Å"/etc/gateways† file takes precedence over any routing information received through a RIP update. It is also broadcast as fact in RIP updates produced by the host without question, so if a mistake is made in the â€Å"/etc/gateways† file, that mistake will soon permeate the RIP space and may bring the network to its knees. One of the problems with â€Å"routed† is that you have very little control over what gets broadcast and what doesn’t. Many times in larger networks where various parts of the network are under different administrative controls, you would like to pass on through RIP only nets which you receive from RIP and you know are reasonable. This prevents people from adding IP addresses to the network which may be illegal and you being responsible for passing them on to the Internet. This -12type of reasonability checks are not available with â€Å"routed† and leave it usable, but inadequate for large networks. 12 Hello (RFC-891) Hello is a routing protocol which was designed and implemented in a experimental software router called a â€Å"Fuzzball† hich runs on a PDP-11. It does not have wide usage, but is the routing protocol currently used on the NSFnet backbone. The data transferred between nodes is similar to RIP (a list of networks and their metrics). The metric, however, is milliseconds of delay. This allows Hello to be used over nets of various link speeds and performs better in congestive situations. One of the most interesting side effects of Hello based networks is their great timekeeping ability. If you consider the problem of measuring delay on a link for the metric, you find that it is not an easy thing to Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet do. You cannot measure round trip time since the return link may be more congested, of a different speed, or even not there. It is not really feasible for each node on the network to have a builtin WWV (nationwide radio time standard) receiver. So, you must design an algorithm to pass around time between nodes over the network links where the delay in transmission can only be approximated. Hello routers do this and in a nationwide network maintain synchronized time within milliseconds. 13 Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP RFC-904) EGP is not strictly a routing protocol, it is a reachability protocol. It tells only if nets can be reached through a particular gateway, not how good the connection is. It is the standard by which gateways to local nets inform the ARPAnet of the nets they can reach. There is a metric passed around by EGP but its usage is not standardized formally. Its typical value is value is 1 to 8 which are arbitrary goodness of link values understood by the internal DDN gateways. The smaller the value the better and a value of 8 being unreachable. A quirk of the protocol prevents distinguishing between 1 and 2, 3 and 4†¦ , so the usablity of this as a metric is as three values and unreachable. Within NSFnet the values used are 1, 3, and unreachable. Many routers talk EGP so they can be used for ARPAnet gateways. -13Gated So we have regional and campus networks talking RIP among themselves, the NSFnet backbone talking Hello, and the DDN speaking EGP. How do they interoperate? In the beginning there was static routing, assembled into the Fuzzball software configured for each site. The problem with doing static routing in the middle of the network is that it is broadcast to the Internet whether it is usable or not. Therefore, if a net becomes unreachable and you try to get there, dynamic routing will immediately issue a net unreachable to you. Under static routing the routers would think the net could be reached and would continue trying until the application gave up (in 2 or more minutes). Mark Fedor of Cornell (fedor@devvax. tn. cornell. edu) attempted to solve these problems with a replacement for â€Å"routed† called â€Å"gated†. â€Å"Gated† talks RIP to RIP speaking hosts, EGP to EGP speakers, and Hello to Hello’ers. These speakers frequently all live on one Ethernet, but luckily (or unluckily) cannot understand each others ruminations. In addition, under configuration file control it can filter the conversion. For example, one can produce a Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet configuration saying announce RIP nets via Hello only if they are specified in a list and are reachable by way of a RIP broadcast as well. This means that if a rogue network appears in your local site’s RIP space, it won’t be passed through to the Hello side of the world. There are also configuration options to do static routing and name trusted gateways. This may sound like the greatest thing since sliced bread, but there is a catch called metric conversion. You have RIP measuring in hops, Hello measuring in milliseconds, and EGP using arbitrary small numbers. The big questions is how many hops to a millisecond, how many milliseconds in the EGP number 3†¦. Also, remember that infinity (unreachability) is 16 to RIP, 30000 or so to Hello, and 8 to the DDN with EGP. Getting all these metrics to work well together is no small feat. If done incorrectly and you translate an RIP of 16 into an EGP of 6, everyone in the ARPAnet will still think your gateway can reach the unreachable and will send every packet in the world your way. For these reasons, Mark requests that you consult closely with him when configuring and using â€Å"gated†. -14†³Names† All routing across the network is done by means of the IP address associated with a packet. Since humans find it difficult to remember addresses like 128. 174. 5. 50, a symbolic name register was set up at the NIC where people would say â€Å"I would like my host to be named ‘uiucuxc'†. Machines connected to the Internet across the nation would connect to the NIC in the middle of the night, check modification dates on the hosts file, and if modified move it to their local machine. With the advent of workstations and micros, changes to the host file would have to be made nightly. It would also be very labor intensive and consume a lot of network bandwidth. RFC-882 and a number of others describe domain name service, a distributed data base system for mapping names into addresses. We must look a little more closely into what’s in a name. First, note that an address specifies a particular connection on a specific network. If the machine moves, the address changes. Second, a machine can have one or more names and one or more network addresses (connections) to different networks. Names point to a something which does useful work (i. e. the machine) and IP addresses point to an interface on that provider. A name is a purely symbolic representation of a list of addresses on the network. If a machine moves to a different network, the addresses will change but the name could remain the same. Domain names are tree structured names with the root of the tree at the right. For example: 14 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. om The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet 15 uxc. cso. uiuc. edu is a machine called ‘uxc’ (purely arbitrary), within the subdomains method of allocation of the U of I) and ‘uiuc’ (the University of Illinois at Urbana), registered with ‘edu’ (the set of educational institutions). A simplified model of how a name is resolved is that on the user’s machine there is a resolver. The resolver knows how to contact across the network a root name server. Root servers are the base of the tree structured data retrieval system. They know who is responsible for handling first level domains (e. g. ‘edu’). What root servers to use is an installation parameter. From the root server the resolver finds out who provides ‘edu’ service. It contacts the ‘edu’ name server which supplies it with a list of addresses of servers for the subdomains (like ‘uiuc’). This action is repeated with the subdomain servers until the final subdomain returns a list of addresses of interfaces on the host in question. The user’s machine then has its choice of which of these addresses to use for communication. -15A group may apply for its own domain name (like ‘uiuc’ above). This is done in a manner similar to the IP address allocation. The only requirements are that the requestor have two machines reachable from the Internet, which will act as name servers for that domain. Those servers could also act as servers for subdomains or other servers could be designated as such. Note that the servers need not be located in any particular place, as long as they are reachable for name resolution. (U of I could ask Michigan State to act on its behalf and that would be fine). The biggest problem is that someone must do maintenance on the database. If the machine is not convenient, that might not be done in a timely fashion. The other thing to note is that once the domain is allocated to an administrative entity, that entity can freely allocate subdomains using what ever manner it sees fit. The Berkeley Internet Name Domain (BIND) Server implements the Internet name server for UNIX systems. The name server is a distributed data base system that allows clients to name resources and to share that information with other network hosts. BIND is integrated with 4. 3BSD and is used to lookup and store host names, addresses, mail agents, host information, and more. It replaces the â€Å"/etc/hosts† file for host name lookup. BIND is still an evolving program. To keep up with reports on operational problems, future design decisions, etc, join the BIND mailing list by sending a request to â€Å"bind-request@ucbarp. Berkeley. EDU†. BIND can also be obtained via anonymous FTP from ucbarpa. berkley. edu. There are several advantages in using BIND. One of the most important is that it frees a host from relying on â€Å"/etc/hosts† Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet being up to date and complete. Within the . uiuc. edu domain, only a few hosts are included in the host table distributed by SRI. The remainder are listed locally within the BIND tables on uxc. cso. uiuc. edu (the server machine for most of the . uiuc. edu domain). All are equally reachable from any other Internet host running BIND. BIND can also provide mail forwarding information for interior hosts not directly reachable from the Internet. These hosts can either be on non-advertised networks, or not connected to a network at all, as in the case of UUCP-reachable hosts. More information on BIND is available in the â€Å"Name Server Operations Guide for BIND† in â€Å"UNIX System Manager’s Manual†, 4. 3BSD release. There are a few special domains on the network, like SRINIC. ARPA. The ‘arpa’ domain is historical, referring to hosts registered in the old hosts database at the NIC. There are others of the form NNSC. NSF. NET. These special domains are used sparingly and require ample justification. They refer to servers under the administrative control of -16the network rather than any single organization. This allows for the actual server to be moved around the net while the user interface to that machine remains constant. That is, should BBN relinquish control of the NNSC, the new provider would be pointed to by that name. In actuality, the domain system is a much more general and complex system than has been described. Resolvers and some servers cache information to allow steps in the resolution to be skipped. Information provided by the servers can be arbitrary, not merely IP addresses. This allows the system to be used both by non-IP networks and for mail, where it may be necessary to give information on intermediate mail bridges. 16 What’s wrong with Berkeley Unix University of California at Berkeley has been funded by DARPA to modify the Unix system in a number of ways. Included in these modifications is support for the Internet protocols. In earlier versions (e. g. BSD 4. 2) there was good support for the basic Internet protocols (TCP, IP, SMTP, ARP) which allowed it to perform nicely on IP ethernets and smaller Internets. There were deficiencies, however, when it was connected to complicated networks. Most of these problems have been resolved under the newest release (BSD 4. 3). Since it is the springboard from which many vendors have launched Unix implementations (either by porting the existing code or by using it as a model), many implementations (e. g. Ultrix) are still based on BSD 4. 2. Therefore, many implementations still exist with the BSD 4. 2 problems. As time goes on, when BSD 4. 3 trickles through Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet vendors as new release, many of the problems will be resolved. Following is a list of some problem scenarios and their handling under each of these releases. ICMP redirects Under the Internet model, all a system needs to know to get anywhere in the Internet is its own address, the address of where it wants to go, and how to reach a gateway which knows about the Internet. It doesn’t have to be the best gateway. If the system is on a network with multiple gateways, and a host sends a packet for delivery to a gateway which feels another directly connected gateway is more appropriate, the gateway sends the sender a message. This message is an ICMP redirect, which politely says â€Å"I’ll deliver this message for you, but you really ought to use that gateway over there to reach this host†. BSD 4. 2 ignores these messages. This creates more stress on the gateways and the local network, since for every packet -17sent, the gateway sends a packet to the originator. BSD 4. 3 uses the redirect to update its routing tables, will use the route until it times out, then revert to the use of the route it thinks is should use. The whole process then repeats, but it is far better than one per packet. Trailers An application (like FTP) sends a string of octets to TCP which breaks it into chunks, and adds a TCP header. TCP then sends blocks of data to IP which adds its own headers and ships the packets over the network. All this prepending of the data with headers causes memory moves in both the sending and the receiving machines. Someone got the bright idea that if packets were long and they stuck the headers on the end (they became trailers), the receiving machine could put the packet on the beginning of a page boundary and if the trailer was OK merely delete it and transfer control of the page with no memory moves involved. The problem is that trailers were never standardized and most gateways don’t know to look for the routing information at the end of the block. When trailers are used, the machine typically works fine on the local network (no gateways involved) and for short blocks through gateways (on which trailers aren’t used). So TELNET and FTP’s of very short files work just fine and FTP’s of long files seem to hang. On BSD 4. 2 trailers are a boot option and one should make sure they are off when using the Internet. BSD 4. 3 negotiates trailers, so it uses them on its local net and doesn’t use them when going across the network. 17 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet Retransmissions TCP fires off blocks to its partner at the far end of the connection. If it doesn’t receive an acknowledgement in a reasonable amount of time it retransmits the blocks. The determination of what is reasonable is done by TCP’s retransmission algorithm. There is no correct algorithm but some are better than others, where better is measured by the number of retransmissions done unnecessarily. BSD 4. 2 had a retransmission algorithm which retransmitted quickly and often. This is exactly what you would want if you had a bunch of machines on an ethernet (a low delay network of large bandwidth). If you have a network of relatively longer delay and scarce bandwidth (e. g. 56kb lines), it tends to retransmit too aggressively. Therefore, it makes the networks and gateways pass more traffic than is really necessary for a given conversation. Retransmission algorithms do adapt to the delay of the network -18after a few packets, but 4. 2’s adapts slowly in delay situations. BSD 4. 3 does a lot better and tries to do the best for both worlds. It fires off a few retransmissions really quickly assuming it is on a low delay network, and then backs off very quickly. It also allows the delay to be about 4 minutes before it gives up and declares the connection broken. -19Appendix A References to Remedial Information 18 Quaterman and Hoskins, â€Å"Notable Computer Networks†, Communications of the ACM, Vol 29, #10, pp. 932-971 (October, 1986). Tannenbaum, Andrew S. , Computer Networks, Prentice Hall, 1981. Hedrick, Chuck, Introduction to the Internet Protocols, Anonymous FTP from topaz. rutgers. edu, directory pub/tcp-ip-docs, file tcp-ip-intro. doc. -20Appendix B List of Major RFCs RFC-768 RFC-791 RFC-792 RFC-793 RFC-821 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) Internet Protocol (IP) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet RFC-822 RFC-854 RFC-917 * RFC-919 * RFC-922 * Subnets RFC-940 * RFC-947 * RFC-950 * RFC-959 RFC-966 * Protocol RFC-988 * RFC-997 * RFC-1010 * RFC-1011 * Standard for the Format of ARPA Internet Text Messages Telnet Protocol Internet Subnets Broadcasting Internet Datagrams Broadcasting Internet Datagrams in the Presence of Toward an Internet Standard Scheme for Subnetting Multi-network Broadcasting within the Internet Internet Standard Subnetting Procedure File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Host Groups: A Multicast Extension to the Internet Host Extensions for IP Multicasting Internet Numbers Assigned Numbers Official ARPA-Internet Protocols 9 RFC’s marked with the asterisk (*) are not included in the 1985 DDN Protocol Handbook. Note: This list is a portion of a list of RFC’s by topic retrieved from the NIC under NETINFO:RFC-SETS. TXT (anonymous FTP of course). The following list is not necessary for connection to the Internet, but is useful in understanding the domain system, mail system, and gateways: RFC-882 RFC-883 RFC-973 RFC-974 RFC-1009 Domain Names – Concepts and Facilities Domain Names – Implementation Domain System Changes and Observations Mail Routing and the Domain System Requirements for Internet Gateways -21Appendix C Contact Points for Network Information Network Information Center (NIC) DDN Network Information Center SRI International, Room EJ291 333 Ravenswood Avenue Menlo Park, CA 94025 (800) 235-3155 or (415) 859-3695 NIC@SRI-NIC. ARPA NSF Network Service Center (NNSC) NNSC BBN Laboratories Inc. 10 Moulton St. Cambridge, MA 02238 (617) 497-3400 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet NNSC@NNSC. NSF. NET -22Glossary core gateway The innermost gateways of the ARPAnet. These gateways have a total picture of the reachability to all networks known to the ARPAnet with EGP. They then redistribute reachability information to all those gateways speaking EGP. It is from them your EGP agent (there is one acting for you somewhere if you can reach the ARPAnet) finds out it can reach all the nets on the ARPAnet. Which is then passed to you via Hello, gated, RIP†¦. ount to infinity The symptom of a routing problem where routing information is passed in a circular manner through multiple gateways. Each gateway increments the metric appropriately and passes it on. As the metric is passed around the loop, it increments to ever increasing values til it reaches the maximum for the routing protocol being used, which typically denotes a link outage. hold down When a router discovers a path in the network has gone down announcing that that path is down for a minimum amount of time (usually at least two minutes). This allows for the propagation of the routing information across the network and prevents the formation of routing loops. split horizon When a router (or group of routers working in consort) accept routing information from multiple external networks, but do not pass on information learned from one external network to any others. This is an attempt to prevent bogus routes to a network from being propagated because of gossip or counting to infinity. -23- 20 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com How to cite Live and Let Live, Papers

The Organizational Change Management

Question: Case study on Organizational Change Management ? Answer : Introduction: In the world of today, companies all around the world need to be aware about the inner working of the organization and the standpoint of the organization in the global business scenario. Since it is mandatory for all companies to be ahead of one another in this competitive world, it becomes necessary for the companies to be well aware about itself before strategizing any plan to bring in any change that is required to deal with the aggressive world. The competition makes it mandatory for companies to stay ahead of one another, which is important for being at the top in this quest for achieving the maximum profit and revenue. In order to survive in the extremely competitive world of today, the assessment and analysis of the operations of the company is important. It is important because to keep up with the competition that exists in the world today, any company needs to analyze its strengths and weaknesses. It is also required to monitor and analyze any change or scope of change that might be present in the company at a given point of time. Tools for this type of analysis like the 7S, SWOT analysis, PESTLE and balanced scorecard are necessary. To understand the innate inner working and structure of the company, these analyses are required. Companies all around the world should conduct these analyses in order to make the required changes that are important to improve the profitability and productivity of the company. This write up explores the change and the strategy of change that is required to bring in to the mentioned company, SKL. The write up shows what effect the change is going to bring in to the company and its operations. It uses tools like 7S, SWOT, PESTEL and Balanced Score Card to make the analysis. These tools help in analyzing the operations of the company. It provides a clear picture that facilitates the analysis of the company in case of any query regarding a particular section of the company. SKL: a company overview SKL is a multi-national company that is a worldwide leader in consumer transaction technologies. The company deals with software, hardware and other services that help to achieve a successful completion of 450 million transactions on a regular basis across the financial, retail, travel, telecom, technology and hospitality industries. SKL solutions run the everyday transactions that make the life of the consumers easier. Headquartered in California, San Francisco, the company has over 26,000 employees and has operations in about 180 countries. It is a trademark of SKL Corporation in the US and other countries. The dynamics of the company is based on a pluralism point of view. The company is made of divergent sub-groups, which are powerful, and has their own set of loyalties, objectives and leaders. The way to achieve good relations in this company is to acknowledge that the various employees in different groups have different requirements and to put all the employees on the same page of any particular matter, the management should arrive at a conclusion with the help of some amount of compromises and understanding. In order to understand the operations of the company in a proper and accurate manner, the help of some measuring tools like the 7S, Balanced Scorecard, SWOT and PESTEL analysis have to be taken into consideration. Therefore, the assignment proceeds with the usage of these tools to understand the company in a better way. These tools are needed to analyze how well an organization is placed in the market to achieve the intended objectives. 7S framework The McKinsey 7S framework is a model that helps to bring about a successful change in the company by analyzing the operations of the company. The 7S framework helps to analyze the strategy, structure, skills, staff, system, style and shared values of the required company. The strategy discusses the plan of the company that is aimed at achieving at incorporating changes in the company that is crucial to bring about an alteration in the operation of the company. These factors help in determining the way in which a company operates (Cheal 2014). This model can be applied to many situations and act as a valuable tool when there is a need to facilitate a change in the organization, to implement a new strategy, to help identifying how things may change in the future and to help in merging organizations (Pressler 2014). Strategy: The strategy indicates the plan of the distribution of resources in an organization. This implies the allocation of resources over a period to achieve identified goals like in the context of environment, customers and competition. The strategy is essentially a plan that is formulated to maintain and build a competitive advantage over the competition in the market (Hodson and Sullivan 2012). The strategy of SKL is to be the top most leader of its industry in the worldwide scenario. By focusing on the shared values of the organization, increasing the efficiency and effectiveness and by training, developing talents and acquiring new talents, SKL, as an organization can perform better. The organization should aim to cut down unnecessary and excess layers from the hierarchy to achieve maximum productivity. Structure: It is the way that the organization is structured and which staff members reports to which section of the management. The structure of an organization is essential in the analysis of the operation of the company and to get a detailed picture of the operations of the organization (D. Tamilia 2013). The company should reduce some fat from the unnecessary layers of the organization. This is required to ensure a smooth operation of the company. Skills: The actual competencies and skills of the employees of the company are enlisted under this point. The skills are the dominant and distinctive capabilities of the organization as a whole. This point analyses the fact that whether there is any gaps in the skills, in what method are the skills assessed and monitored, does the current workforce have the ability to do the job or not, what is the reason for the company doing well. The skills of an organization are important to achieve maximum output of production and revenue and profit. Staff: In this point, the employees of a company and the general capabilities of the employees are enlisted. What are the specializations and positions that are represented within the team. It discussed the positions that need to be filled and analyses whether there are any gaps in the required competencies. The company should focus on hiring new and fresh talents from all across the world to ensure a higher level of productivity and profitability for the company. System: This point elucidates the informal and the formal flow of activities in an organization that also includes the core processes and the support systems of the company. It refers to the processes, procedure and the routines that are used to manage the company and to characterize how an important work is to be completed in the organization (Greenland 2012). The company should be careful about the working and the hierarchy of the organization. Style: It indicates how participative the management is, the leadership style of the company is, and how the management is going about in managing the company. The leadership of the organization must be adequate and effective for any change to be implemented (Tjader et al. 2014). Shared value: The shared value of a particular company indicates the core values of the organization and the corporate or team culture. It determines the strength of the values of the company and illustrates the fundamental values that the company was built on. More focus on the shared value of the organization is to be given (Quero 2012). These few points help to analyze the identity of the company and help to figure out the changes that are necessary within the company to compete with other companies around the world and earn maximum profits. SWOT analysis is used to analyze the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of a particular company. This analysis is required to get a clear picture of the company in the global market. Strength: The main strength of the company is its workforce of 26,000 employees. The larger the number of employees, the more adequate is the workforce thereby implying a higher productivity. A larger number of employees guarantee a higher productivity which is beneficial for the company. The company enjoys a large number of workforce which also indicates a massive popularity of the company which attracts the best talents from all around the world. The operations of the company are spread out in about 180 countries which indicate its popularity. This indicates the popularity and the success of the company as an enterprise. The operation of SKL is spread out to many parts of the world which directly implies that the company enjoys immense success all over the world. Since it is a world leader in its sphere, SKL is spread out in many countries across the world. The company is a global leader in consumer transactions technologies. It enables about 450 million transactions each day. Since it is a global leader, it boasts of about 450 million transactions over the world across many spheres on a daily basis. The company is a global leader; therefore, it implies that it enjoys a lot of popularity amongst the consumers over the world. The company stands at a position where it enjoys extensive popularity and acclaim amongst the consumers over the world. Weaknesses: The powerful sub groups that exist within the company affect the internal dynamics of the company. SKL has many sub groups in its workforce which proves to be a hindrance in the smooth operation of the company. The business suffers major setbacks when there are so many sub groups in the workforce. This hinders and slows down the process of any administrative action or decision that is to be implemented in the organization. The only way a good relation can be maintained is by appealing and persuading to each group of the company that is present. Since there are so many sub groups, the only way that a peaceful and cordial relation can be maintained is by keeping all the sub groups in sync with any work related decision that is taken by the management. The presence of many sub groups implies that each member of each group has to be in sync with any decision taken by the management regarding anything about the company. The operations of the company also depend upon the persuasion capability of the management to put the employees in each sub group to be on the same page (Tjader et al. 2014). The company faces immense competition in the global market. Companies like NCR are a major peril in the worldwide popularity of the company. SKL, like any other company in this world in the day and age of today, faces infinite amount of competition from the companies around the world. NCR, which is a company in the same industry as SKL, doing same type of business, can be considered as a major hazard to SKL (Zincir and Tunc 2016). Opportunities: SKL, as a company, has a lot of opportunities in its favor. The most important one is that since it is performing well in the global market, it can venture out into new markets of the world. In the world today, companies always look for opportunities to expand its business to new dimensions and to new markets. This is crucial for companies in the present day and age because in this competitive world, expansion is an important aspect. It helps the companies to move ahead of its competitors in this overtly competitive world (Mourfield 2014). One of the main opportunities for SKL is that the industry in which SKL operates show a positive trend in the recent and in the upcoming years. In the recent few years, a growth of 12% was recorded in the industry. This means that the industry is doing well and shows a promising trend for the near future. There is a new and hopeful progress in the industry in which the company operates. The trade agreements between the countries all across the world have become easier. It indicates that SKL can enjoy a lot growth in many countries across the globe. With the trade restrictions getting easier, the company can enjoy spreading out its operations in many countries around the world. SKL enjoys a positive asset leverage as a company. The company uses a range of financial instruments like margin to augment the possible return on an investment. The company has a growth opportunity through the means of innovation. There are many sectors in which the company can innovate which can lead to a higher productivity and profit for the company. The company can focus its attention on the field of digital innovation which is extremely relevant in the day and age of today. SKL can expand its product and services to increase the productivity and revenue. In this competitive world, increasing the products and services is an essential element to succeed and grow. This is necessary for the company as the expansion of the services and products of the company means greater productivity and profit for the company. Threats: SKL, like any other company in this world today, faces a lot of competition from its competitors from around the world. This acts as a threat to the company. More competition means more risk, which translates to finding more new ways to innovate and identify better measures to increase the revenue and profitability of the company. SKL faces a threat in the form of the increasing rates of interest all across the globe. The higher rate of interest means that the consumers do not have the capability to invest and spend more in the company. This implies that the increasing rates of interest act as a threat to the company (Ali 2015). Balanced Scorecard: The balanced scorecard is a tool that is helpful for strategic planning of an organization. It is used widely in industry and business, nonprofit organizations and government worldwide to support industry activities to the idea and policy of the institute, recover external and internal communications, as well as observe the organization performance alongside the strategic goals.The phrase was coined in the early 1990s. The balanced scorecard is necessary to analyze the workings and the operations of a particular company (Kaplan 2012). The following table represents the balanced scorecard of SKL as a company. Balanced Score card of SKL: Financial Perspective Internal Process Perspective Customer Perspective Learning or Growth Perspective The revenue of SKL corporation for the year 2015, is 6.37 billion USD (Krishnamoorthy, Labuda and Haddock 2012). In the year 2016, the revenue of the company was $ 1,802 million. The expenses of the company for the year 2016, was $1,656.00 million. The net income of SKL corporation for the year 2016 was $ 57 million. The cash flow of the company is depended on the customers and the consumers of the company (Ruland 2013). The other investing cash flow of the company is $38 million. The asset value of the company as of December 2016 was $ -33.88. The inventory of a company is indicated by the raw materials and finished as well as the work-in-progress products of a company. The inventory of SKL as a company is its products, goods and services. The orders that a company gets to produce more products is directly proportional to the demands of the consumers. For SKL, since the company is a world leader in consumer transaction technologies, it enjoys about 450 million transactions daily across the financial, retail, travel, telecom, hospitality and technology industries. The resource allocation is important in a company as an efficient resource allocation can guarantee the optimum utilization of the raw materials and thus ensuring the optimum productivity. The cycle time of an organization is the annual evaluation of the performance of the company. The company, after a specific amount of time, should produce a report of the annual performance of the company. Quality control is important for each of the companies in this world. The customer satisfaction is the ultimate objective that companies all around the world try to achieve. SKL, being the world leader in its business gives top priority to customer satisfaction. The company has a Customer Relations solution portfolio for the wholesale distribution that improves the satisfaction of the customer by transforming sales representatives to advisors. It is one of the many offerings of the Power Enterprise software suite. The market share of a company is the share of the market that is controlled by a particular company or product. The market share of SKL is very high with the company being the world leader in its industry. The brand strength of SKL is very high as it is the world leader in its industry. The company enjoys a lot of brand strength as it s the world leader in consumer transaction technologies. SKL, as a company has a higher customer retention capacity as it makes about 650 million transactions daily (NCR | World Leader In Consumer Transaction Technologies, 2017). Employee satisfaction in this company is high as being the world leader in its industry, the company easily keep its employees happy and satisfied as without a competent set of employees, getting the job done is difficult. There are about 29,000 employees in the company as of now. Employee turnover of a company is the normal low of people out of an organization through job change, ill health, relocation or retirement. The employee turnover of SKL is not that high as the employees are happy and satisfied with the company. The company has a practice of assigning a buddy to the new entrant to make him orher comfortable with the entire new process and procedure of induction. The skills of the employees of an organization is important as without a competent set of employees, the operations of a company cannot be properly successful. SKL boasts of a set of skillful employees that contribute immensely to the profitability of the company. Employee skills of SKL is very high with an efficient workforce. This has led to the company becoming the world leader in its industry. Employee education is necessary to educate the employees about the details of the company. The employees should learn adequately about the procedure and the operation of the company to perform efficiently. The employees of SKL are educated adequately during the induction process of the talents. Changes that can be imbibed in the company: As the CEO of SKL, after a careful analysis of the company, it can be deduced that certain changes are mandatory to be brought about in the company in order to achieve a more efficient working process, management and operation of the company (Hmieleski, Cole and Baron 2012). The company, like any other businesses around the world currently, requires certain changes in its operation and management to achieve a maximum productivity and profit for the company. The changes that can be brought about in the company to achieve the optimum level of growth and productivity are as follows: The management should give more focus on the shared value of the organization. A shared value is a strategy which is management based. In this, the companies try to find business scopes in social problems. The company should seek and find out the problems, which plague the company on a social level. Since the workforce of the corporation is segregated into many sub groups, it is important for the management of the company to reach out to the individual sub groups and thus ensuring a smooth assimilation of the change into the company. An organization works on a set of beliefs and values, which helps to determine the reaction of an employee to a given situation (Lueg and Vu 2015). The culture of a company needs to promote efficiency and merit for the employees to perform to their optimum capacity. This can help the employees to add to the profitability of the company. The culture of a company is crucial to the development and growth of the company (Hodson and Sullivan 2012). Since the workforce is the essence of a company, it is crucial for the management of the company to help to percolate the information about the change into the sub-groups of the organization (Harvard Business Review, 2017). To achieve this, the management needs to address the individual heads of each sub groups after which the heads are bound to disseminate the information within their group members. This step is important in implementing a change in the organization, as without the assimilation and absorption of information within all strata of the organizational hierarchy, no change is possible. The culture of teamwork, courage, respect, integrity, innovation, performance and customer dedication has to be encouraged within the team members by the individual group heads (Werbach 2013). These cultures can be imbibed within the groups with the help of certain workshops, which will benefit the employees of the organization. SKL, as a company that is a global leader in the consumer transaction t echnology, puts more stress on the shared value of the company that helps the company to achieve the maximum amount of potential in terms of productivity and profitability. It takes the steps that are necessary for the betterment of everyone that is connected with the company (Greenland 2012). The integrity of the company is important and SKL is a highly ethical, trustworthy and genuine company. It is respectful to the communicators and the collaborators. It recognizes the contribution of everyone and understands the fact that better results can be achieved through the formation of a diverse global team rather than as individuals (Schram 2014). The company is constantly creative and curious. The management of the company easily embraces the new ideas and fresh perspectives (Tsidon, Hanniel and Keslassy 2012). The customer dedication of the company is extremely high. The company tries to live and abide by the values that are set by the management of the company. It tries to do the ri ght thing in terms of operation. The next change that I would suggest as the CEO of the company is to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization by reducing some fat in the structure. This step is necessary for the organization as it helps to identify the unnecessary layers in the different sectors of the company. The company should identify the redundant layers in the organizational structure and should eliminate those sectors in order to maintain higher productivity. For this, the management of the company should analyze and conclude as to which areas are redundant in the company (Davenport, Bensoussan and Fleisher 2012). The management of the company should conduct an honest assessment of the work practices that is prevalent in each sector of the organization. Cutting down unnecessary layers bring with it few additional steps. It brings with it additional steps like identifying the redundant layer within the company, dismissing the redundant employees or in some cases, absorbing the able and ef ficient employees into different sectors or branches of the company, creating a new section that proves to be more efficient than the past productivity. One of the most difficult situations for the management of the company is the elimination of the prevailing workforce to restructure and bring in a new set of employees in new departments. The elimination of unnecessary positions from the workforce indicates that the company was operating the business with unnecessary sectors in it, which was slowing down the operation of the company. The one unnecessary layer in the company is the sales department of the company (NCR | World Leader In Consumer Transaction Technologies, 2017). Current hierarchy chart of SKL Corporation: There should be more investment on training, developing talents and acquiring new talents by having a partnership agreement with top-notch universities across the globe/Region. The management of the company should invest more on training and developing talents. They should acquire new talents by having an agreement or a partnership with the top universities of the region or the globe. In this overly competitive world, organizations always try to be ahead of their competitors by adopting new as well as traditional means (Ivanov and Avasilc? 2014). The most popular method of staying ahead in the competitive race is acquiring new and talented recruits who can help in contributing to the profitability of the company (Hmieleski, Cole and Baron 2012). A talented workforce can help the company to move ahead of the competitive game in a rapid manner. The management of the company needs to be careful about the quality of the new employee that the company is hiring. The employees of a company are the most valuable resource for that organization. The HR department should be exceedingly cautious about the recruitment of fresh talents as a wrong recruitment can cause damage to the company. Acquiring the best and fresh talents will ensure that workforce of the company is both talented and energetic, thus ensuring higher levels of productivity. The acquiring of new talents will help bring in a fresher and unique perspective to the company structure as well as to the operations. SKL, since it is a global leader in consumer transaction technology, should invest in acquiring new and fresh talents from top universities all around the world (Mujkic and Busatlic 2013). References: Davenport, T.H., Bensoussan, B.E. and Fleisher, C.S., 2012.The Complete Guide to Business Analytics (Collection). FT Press. [accessed from: https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=enlr=id=jZ3IwJOaFSoCoi=fndpg=PT47dq=+Davenport,+T.H.,+Bensoussan,+B.E.+and+Fleisher,+C.S.,+2012.+The+Complete+Guide+to+Business+Analytics+(Collection).+FT+Press.+ots=NboMH63zqgsig=QYgNfk00-bWgtzyvq9s6ixMT6uw#v=onepageqf=false} Werbach, A., 2013.Strategy for sustainability: A business manifesto. Harvard Business Press. [accessed from: https://books.google.co.in/books?id=-8IdGJ20XzECprintsec=frontcoverdq=Werbach,+A.,+2013.+Strategy+for+sustainability:+A+business+manifesto.+Harvard+Business+Press.hl=ensa=Xved=0ahUKEwif-YzK3_3SAhXjllQKHUd1A_EQ6AEIGTAA#v=onepageqf=false] Tjader, Y., May, J.H., Shang, J., Vargas, L.G. and Gao, N., 2014. Firm-level outsourcing decision making: A balanced scorecard-based analytic network process model. International Journal of Production Economics, 147, pp.614-623. [accessed from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259517931_Firm-level_outsourcing_decision_making_A_balanced_scorecard-based_analytic_network_process_model] Greenland, S., 2012. Transparency and disclosure, neutrality and balance: shared values or just shared words?.Journal of epidemiology and community health, pp.jech-2011 [accessed from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4877414/ Hodson, R. and Sullivan, T.A., 2012.The social organization of work. Cengage Learning. [accessed from: https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=enlr=id=ZUEKAAAAQBAJoi=fndpg=PR5dq=6.%09Hodson,+R.+and+Sullivan,+T.A.,+2012.+The+social+organization+of+work.+Cengage+Learningots=fsR117nkUEsig=2RUud715ak2SwXTgQIQ8mdcoxek#v=onepageqf=false Hmieleski, K.M., Cole, M.S. and Baron, R.A., 2012. Shared authentic leadership and new venture performance.Journal of Management,38(5), pp.1476-1499. [accessed from: https://www.hmieleski.com/Publications/Hmieleski_Cole_Baron_JOM_2012.pdf] Quero, R., 2012. Framework for building skills in disaster risk management for businesses. InJournal for Business Conference. [accessed from: https://atiftap.org/assets/e-journal/jgbv1n1/v1n1_2.pdf] Zincir, O. and Tun, A.., 2016. An Imagination of Organizations in the Future: Rethinking McKinseys 7S Model.Strategic Imperatives and Core Competencies in the Era of Robotics and Artificial Intelligence, p.101. [accessed from: https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=enlr=id=ZESuDQAAQBAJoi=fndpg=PA101dq=Mckinsey+7s+shared+value+pdfots=E2DxqYcg6Psig=w96nhMfxkF7-TnpedTu0_uP2LX4#v=onepageqf=false Mourfield, R., 2014. Organizational Change: A Guide to Bringing Everyone on Board.Management. [accessed from: https://spea.indiana.edu/doc/undergraduate/theses/ugrd_thesis2014_mgmt_mourfield.pdf Ali, L., 2015. The Relationship between Knowledge Sharing, Commitment and Opportunism Towards Product Performance in Malaysia. [accessed from: https://poseidon01.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=661105029067075096071080112121110075036068033079045035081067020018025120121125116118096007116103015125020083108093103118103097006001026038048121002124112123114103028059073066000103005125116079092120097090117120031026111108031113115098083116090021071068EXT=pdf Mujkic, A. and Busatlic, A.P.D.S., 2013. MASTERING CHANGE.eurotecs 13, p.50. [accessed from: https://eurotecs.ius.edu.ba/sites/default/files/books/FBA%20Proceedings.pdf#page=51 Schram, A., 2014. Leadership, Strategic Planning and Strategic Management for Higher Education Institutions in Developing Countries. InWorld Business and Economics Research Conference(pp. 24-25). [accessed from: https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/32817258/Schram_Albert_WBERC_24_25_Feb_2014_4500words.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3AExpires=1490867555Signature=hjoT5n5d4zC%2FMZ97RdNpv9KVr50%3Dresponse-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DLeadership_Strategic_Planning_and_Strate.pdf Cheal, J., 2014. The Logical Level 7S Matrix. [accessed from: https://www.gwiznlp.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Logical-Levels-7S-Matrix.pdf Pressler, E.J., 2014. Logging in to Learning Analytics.Current Issues in Emerging eLearning,1(1), p.6. [accessed from: https://scholarworks.umb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005context=ciee Lueg, R. and Vu, L., 2015. Success factors in Balanced Scorecard implementationsA literature review.management revue, pp.306-327. [accessed from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24570262?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents and https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24570262.pdf Ivanov, C.I. and Avasilc?i, S., 2014. Measuring the performance of innovation processes: A Balanced Scorecard perspective.Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,109, pp.1190-1193. [accessed from: https://ac.els-cdn.com/S187704281305249X/1-s2.0-S187704281305249X-main.pdf?_tid=f140352e-1530-11e7-8875-00000aacb362acdnat=1490868740_b042fcc046b23b99a16e879384a98fb7] Harvard Business Review. (2017). Creating Shared Value. [online] Available at: https://hbr.org/2011/01/the-big-idea-creating-shared-value [Accessed 30 Mar. 2017]. [accessed from: https://hbr.org/2011/01/the-big-idea-creating-shared-value NCR | World Leader In Consumer Transaction Technologies. (2017). Company. [online] Available at: https://www.ncr.com/company [Accessed 30 Mar. 2017]. [accesed from: https://www.ncr.com/company

Behavior and Classroom Management in Special Education

Behavior and Classroom Management in Special Education Behavior is one of the greatest challenges a special education teacher faces. This is especially true when students receiving special education services are in inclusive classrooms. There are a number of strategies that teachers- both special and general education- can employ to help with these situations. We will begin by looking at ways to provide structure, move on to addressing behavior in general, and look at structured interventions as prescribed by federal law. Classroom Management The most effective way to deal with difficult behavior is to prevent it. It really is as simple as that, but thats also sometimes easier to say than to put into practice in real life. Preventing bad behavior means creating a classroom environment that reinforces positive behavior. At the same time, you want to stimulate attention and imagination  and make your expectations clear to the students. To start, you can create a comprehensive classroom management plan. Beyond establishing rules, this plan will help you institute classroom routines, develop strategies to keep students organized and implement Positive Behavior Support systems. Behavior Management Strategies Before you have to put a Functional Behavior Analysis (FBA)  and Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP) in place, there are other strategies you can try. These will help refocus behavior and avoid those higher, and more official, levels of intervention. First of all, as a teacher, its important that you understand the potential behavioral and emotional disorders children in your classroom may be dealing with. These may include psychiatric disorders or behavioral disabilities and each student will come to class with their own needs. Then, we also need to define what inappropriate behavior is. This helps us understand why a student may be acting out the way she has in the past. It also gives us guidance in properly confronting these actions. With this background, behavior management becomes part of classroom management. Here, you can begin to implement strategies to support a positive learning environment. This may include behavior contracts between yourself, the student, and their parents. It could also involve rewards for positive behavior. For example, many teachers use interactive tools like the Token Economy to recognize good behavior in the classroom. These point systems can be customized to fit the individual needs of your students and classroom. Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a research-based therapeutic system based on Behaviorism (the science of behavior), which was first defined by B.F. Skinner. It has been proven to be successful in managing and changing problematic behavior. ABA also provides instruction in functional and life skills, as well as academic programming. Individual Education Plans (IEP) An Individual Education Plan (IEP) is a way to organize your thoughts in a formal manner regarding a childs behavior. This can be shared with the IEP team, parents, other teachers, and school administration. The goals outlined in an IEP should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and have a timeframe (SMART). All of this helps keep everyone on track and gives your student a very detailed sense of what is expected of them. If the IEP is not working, then you might need to resort to the formal FBA or BIP. Yet, teachers often find that with earlier intervention, the right combination of tools, and a positive classroom environment, these measures can be avoided.

Privacy and Safety essays

Privacy and Safety essays We live in a large ordered society with millions of people. Privacy is essential for quality of life, but the security and order of society requires certain degree of government monitoring. So how much privacy we should give up to ensure our safety and being part of the society? Where do we draw the line? For example, FBIs National Crime Information Center (NCIC) was established to help law-enforcement agencies around the country by sharing information such as criminal records [1]. It contains records of more than twenty million people. On the upside, it helps the police to catch criminals especially the ones traveling in between states. But on the other hand, the abuse and lack of control of the data, which is extremely private information, presents a huge threat to the personal privacy. The intention of creating such a database was good that it helps the government to punish the criminals and lower the crime rate to provide a better and safer society for us. With such a detailed database, it provides more information to help police to narrow down the suspects in a particular region and to track down fugitives that escape to a different state. It is undisputable that providing a safer environment for the citizens is one of the fundamental tasks of a government. The use of such a database makes it easier to catch the criminals, and therefore helps to provide a more desirable living environment. But in return, we give up the right to privacy to certain degree. The records in the database are private information, like criminal or credit records. Because of lack of laws to regulate the Internet database and the easy access from the government agencies, abuse and misuse of the database is unavoidable. According to the law, compilation does not qualify for copyright protection unless information is selected, coordinated or arranged in an original manner. Thus, non-original, noncreative databases (such as an alphabeti...

Knowledge Management in Mountville Fashions Assignment

Knowledge Management in Mountville Fashions - Assignment Example The essay "Knowledge Management in Mountville Fashions" talks about Mountville Fashions, its management and business strycture. Rather the company conducts a large amount of market research based on both internal and external teams to understand the realms of change in the fashion wear collections wore by different categories. Further the company also conducts fashion and trade shows along different periods to help gain customer and trade networks involved in the expansion of business for the fashion wear company. The company also integrates effectively with its supply chain network to gain knowledge of the new designs and fashion wears brought about by the category teams. Such new designs are well communicated to the different people in the organization both in regards to the head office and stores in order to conduct sales and operations effectively. The paper in this connection aims to conduct an in depth analysis of the organization structure and culture of the concern and thereb y aim to reveal the knowledge management effectiveness in the concern. Mountville Fashions being a mid-sized fashion department store has an effective organizational structure headed by the Chief Executive Officer of the Company. The Chief Executive Officer of the company is followed by the Head of Finance and Head of Operations of the company. Again the Head of Finance is followed in by managers taking care of the account and credit operations. The Head of Operations would be the Coordinator of Fashions.... ategy of Mountville Fashions Organization Structure Mountville Fashions being a mid-sized fashion department store has an effective organizational structure headed by the Chief Executive Officer of the Company. The Chief Executive Officer of the company is followed by the Head of Finance and Head of Operations of the company. Again the Head of Finance is followed in by managers taking care of the account and credit operations. The Head of Operations would be the Coordinator of Fashions, Head of the Merchandise Display and Promotional Activities and the Head of Operational Activities in regards to Stores and Supplies. The same can be depicted as follows. Figure 1 (Diamond, 2007, p.58) The above organizational chart depicts specialization rendered in regards to the organizational functions thus focusing on the development of skills and business productivity. Through the organizational hierarchy reflected in the chart given the company can effectively work in enhancing the mode of store visuals and the different marketing and promotional activities in relation to such. Thus the head of such teams are expected to work on large amount of innovation in regards to the bringing out of effective visual merchandising ideas in regards to design of the store layout, the interior color to be used and the design of the displays. Such enhancement of the store displays conducted by the visual merchandising teams would certainly help in cultivation of brand awareness in the minds of the consumers. Again the supervisory teams in regards to such project of enhancing store displays are required to effectively communicate the ideas with the teams working in the store thereby enabling them to gain hold of newer ideas and knowledge. In regards to the enhancement of supply chain activities

SWOT Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 7

SWOT Analysis - Essay Example The major strength of the Walt Disney Company is its wide product portfolio, which provides it with a huge and diversified product portfolio. The diverse products include; 14 theme parks globally, ABC broadcast television services, cable television services like Disney Channel, and merchandising products. The main weakness of the company is based on the inappropriate or insensitive production content. Some animated family productions have hidden sexual representations; for example, The Lion King (1994). The significant opportunity entails increasing international demand for cable, television and film entertainment products. Adequate financial capital of the company ensures investments in international marketing strategies and products, for the products of the company. The key threat experienced by the company entails intense competition in the global entertainment industry. The major competitor organization is Comcast, which is the leading revenue earner in the broadcast and cable entertainment industry (Gabler 276). Walt Disney Company has put in place effective measures of using the strengths and opportunities, so as to minimize the negative impact of the weaknesses and threats. The wide product portfolio attract huge international customer base, and thus minimize competition and creates products that suits individual needs of customers. Increasing international demand increases market share of the company. Adequate financial investments should thus be made in product development and

Exploratory Research Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Exploratory Research - Case Study Example It is important to employ the most suitable method of qualitative research in determining the viability and effectiveness of such quality teams. Critical Review Question 1 (b): Here, the bank loan officer who wants to forecast the economy of the state in which the bank operates needs to outline a research design which helps him find the exact data and analyze them to arrive at a conclusion. A quantitative research method is most effective in such situations. Critical Review Question 1 (c): It is important to employ a qualitative research method in order to respond to the product manager's suggestion that a non-tobacco cigarette which is blended from wheat, cocoa and citrus needs to be developed. It is only through the employment of such a qualitative research method that one can determine the viability and success of a non-tobacco cigarette. Critical Review Question 1 (d): In a scenario where the research project needs to identify the issues of concern to labor union, a mixed research method is most recommended where qualitative research method and quantitative research method are blended. Critical Review Question 2: The utility of case studies in social researches is manifold and the social scientists use different terms such as 'N of cases', 'case study', and 'sample of cases' to refer to this. The case study research method may be comprehended as an empirical inquiry which analyzes a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context and this helps one in realizing specific aspects of a particular situation. "Case study research excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue or object and can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous research. Case studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships." (Soy, 1997). However, there are also significant limitations connected with the method and the critics of the case study method assume that the study of a small number of cases cannot provide any grounds for ascertaining reliability or generality of finding s. It is also maintained that the intense exposure to study of the case can result in prejudiced findings. Critical Review Question 3: In qualitative research, a focus group is an essential factor and has several vital functions to serve. A focus group may be understood as a "carefully planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a permissive, non-threatening environment." (Qualitative Research: Focus Groups). Therefore, it is a group of people who are asked about their outlook on a product, service, concept, advertisement, idea, innovation, or a new technology. The most important function of a focus group is to answer to the questions asked in an interactive group setting and in such focus groups participants are given freedom to interact with other members of the group. The several proven benefits of the focus group method lead many researchers to depend on this method in extensive researches. Critical Review Question 4: The use of a focus group in social researches depends on their advantages and limitations conne

Adapting Global Marketing Strategies To The Indian Context

Adapting Global Marketing Strategies To The Indian Context In this report, we look at how the global marketing strategies should be adopted to suit the Indian Customers. We initially look at the Global marketing strategies which can help the marketing managers to boost their sales in different parts of the world. In these strategies, the report covers various aspects of the marketing mix like product, promotion, price, branding, distribution etc. Then the report explains about our country India in terms of its demographics, Culture, Rural/Urban Divide, the decision makers etc and covers the aspects which differentiate our country from the rest of the world. Then the report explains how the global marketing strategies should be adopted to the Indian context with respect to the global marketing strategies which was explained initially. Then the report takes the case study of HUL and how it has modified the marketing strategy to suit the Indian needs and the report critically analyzes the strategies adopted by HUL. Introduction This study examines the global marketing strategies and how those strategies should be adapted to the Indian customers. Then we take the case study of HUL and critically analyze the strategies which it followed. As Prospective future managers of Multi National FMCG Companies operating in India, we might often have to tackle situations where we have to adopt their marketing strategies to India. This study would be of help to the budding managers to prepare themselves to tackle the marketing challenges which they might face in their careers. HUL being one of the multinational companies which has been present in India for a long time and which has been able to capture the minds of each and every Indian serves as the perfect case study to analyze the marketing strategies followed by an MNC in India. In this report, we would be analyzing the strategies of HUL and critically analyze the marketing strategies which they adopted in India. Methodology Our study The Adaptation of Global Marketing Strategies to the Indian Context essentially has the following major parts to it: Understanding the Marketing strategies that firms undertake when they expand Globally: The Marketing Mix Consideration of Local factors (Political, Economic, Social etc) The considered differences from the domestic strategy Understanding the Target market i.e. India The Situation (Conditions Suitable/Unsuitable for marketing) Demography Evaluating the Potential Economic Status Identifying the major buyers (Middle Class in the Indian context) Understanding the specifics: How the Indian market is different and how differently do the consumers behave Combination: Going through the above 2 steps and finding out how to incorporate the Indian specifics within a companys marketing strategy while in international expansion phase A case study of Unilever: To substantiate our study we did a case study on Unilever to find out what Unilever did right and wrong in its Indian subsidiary: HUL ANALYSIS Marketing Globally In whichever part of the world a company operates, the objective of marketing is to create, communicate and deliver value to the customers. But the methodology by which this process is carried out should be adapted to the country in which the company operates to market the product effectively to the customers. It is imperative for any Global marketing manager to feel and touch the hearts of the local customers to make his/her brands a success in the country in which the company operates. In this section, we describe the various marketing strategies which can be employed for Global Marketing and then we will analyze how various elements of the marketing mix like Product, pricing, promotion, Branding and distribution should be fine tuned to suit various geographies/countries. Global marketing Strategies The application of various Marketing Strategies will depend upon the orientation of the company towards a particular market. i.e., how the firm views a particular market. The various marketing orientations are explained below followed by various ways to segment the markets internationally. Orientations The various orientations can be classified as A Chinese Coke Bill Board: Notice the use of Chinese language and ActorsProduction orientation wherein the company focuses on maximizing the efficiency or quality of the product with very little spend on marketing, E.g. commodities like oil etc Sales orientation wherein a firm sells abroad what it sells in the domestic market. E.g. products like laptops, Tennis rackets etc Customer Orientation wherein the company modifies its product as well as marketing strategies to suit the customers needs. E.g. Mac Donalds made modifications in its product line in India to suit the preferences of the Indian Customer. Strategic Orientation which combines all the above mentioned orientations. Here the Marketing managers make slight modifications to their core product or marketing strategy without deviating from their expertise. E.g., A Pantene Sachet is made to suit the customers in developing countries even though the core product, shampoo remains the same. Segmentation There are basically three approaches to segmentation which are mentioned below By Country: A firm may first select a country based on certain parameters like GDP growth, Per capita consumption etc and then decide upon which segments to target in the particular country and decide upon the marketing mix and the promotional strategies to target those segments By Segment: In this case, the company would look at the global customers as a whole and then segment them. After segmenting, the company would choose to enter those countries which has a substantial number of customers in that segment By Country and segment: In this case, the company would find out the multiple segments within all the countries, find out the similar segments in multiple countries which can be targeted and enter the countries in which the segments which can be targeted exist. Product Often in many cases, when a company introduces its product in a foreign market, it would have to make modifications in its products for various reasons some of which are listed below. Legal/Environmental standards Often Legal/Environmental requirements forces companies to make alteration in its products to suit a particular country. For e.g., Environment Safety standards set by some countries for automobiles make it necessary for any firm willing to enter into those countries to make necessary changes in their products. Packaging requirements Pepsi Bottles in Japan. Notice the unique flavors and shape to suit Japanese CustomersSome countries might have some rules which insist on displaying warning information as in the case of cigarettes or detailed information of the contents in case of food products. This might force companies to use different countries. Language also could force companies to use different packaging for different countries. Social/Cultural Considerations Often companies would have to make minor modifications in the product for various countries to accommodate the social and cultural preferences of the country. For e.g, it is said The japanese eat with their eyes. So many firms improves the aesthetic dimension in their food products to attract Japanese customers. Economic Considerations Economic considerations like Income, Infrastructure etc forces companies to make changes in their product. For e.g, Nokia made some models meant for the developing countries to suit their rugged terrains. Decision on Product Alteration To decide whether a product should be altered for a particular country or not, the company should estimate the incremental profit which can be bought in by product alterations and the cost involved in alterations. If the incremental profit is higher than the cost involved, the company should go for the product alteration. Global Pricing Strategies Pricing, One of the elements of the marketing mix is very essential to ensure that it can generate sufficient sales for the company and able to provide sufficient margins for the company. When compared to pricing a product domestically, International pricing is much more complex due to the following factors Government Regulations: Government regulations like Tariffs, Quota, Price Ceiling and Floors makes it difficult for firms to price a product uniformly across the globe. Market Diversity: The diversity of markets among various countries can be taken advantage of to price a product at a premium in some markets. For e.g., Gold Jewellery is much admired in India than in other parts of the world and hence can be sold at a premium. Price Escalation due to Exports: When a company exports a product to another country, various costs like shipping costs, customs duty etc might result in escalation of costs. To retain the price competency, the company might have to sell its products to the intermediaries at a lower cost. Forex Volatility: When a firm sells its products abroad, it is exposed to the risk of the foreign currency losing its value in future. In a monopolistic market, the firm can manage the volatility by increasing the prices in such cases. But in highly competitive markets, firms should go for currency derivatives to manage the currency risk. Pricing Strategies In pricing a product, the company should take into account the competitive scenario in the target market. If its less competitive, the firm can have much discretion in setting prices. It can use the following strategies in such market Skimming strategy: This strategy involves charging a high price for the product to target the customers willing to pay the premium and then lowering the price over the time. Penetration strategy: This strategy involves introducing the product at a low price to penetrate the market Cost-plus strategy: This involves pricing the product at a particular price so as to maintain a desirable margin. Pricing should also take into account the stereo types customers have about products originating from certain countries. For e,g a German Car would be able to command a premium which a car manufacturer from a developing country would not be able to. Firms should also ensure that the price difference between two countries should not be higher than the cost involved in bringing the product to the higher priced country from the lower priced country as a spillover might occur otherwise. Global Promotion Strategies Promotion refers to the communication of messages intended to increase the sales of the product. In the case of Global promotion, managers often have to decide on the following strategies Push/Pull Strategy A push strategy refers to promoting the product by using direct selling strategies like distributing brochures, promotion via salesman, promotion at mass gatherings by distributing free samples. A Pull strategy refers to promotion by using the medium like newspaper, television, magazines etc. The decision of push/pull should be made taking into account various factors like the reach of mass media like TV, how educated the customers are and the distribution network. Higher spend on pull strategy is recommended when the reach of the mass media is high and the customers are well educated. Higher spend on push strategy is recommended in countries where the distribution network is well developed, customers are not highly educated and the reach of mass media is less. It is always advisable to go for a mix of both strategies. Standardization Vs Localization In many of the ads, some amount of localization would be required for various countries as the languages and the culture differs between countries. But at the same time, firms should ensure that it doesnt create confusion in the minds of the customers by portraying itself differently in different countries. It is preferable to localize the constituents of promotion like language, actors etc but it is preferable to keep the theme consistent across countries. The firms can also use some mediums like product placement in Hollywood movies to effectively promote the brand across the entire globe in an effective manner. For e.g. the recent movie Iron Man 2 featured an assortment of 54 brands in it. The firms should also consider the legality and the culture of the country into account when designing ads. For e.g. display of nudity or violence will not go well with all cultures and governments. Global Branding Strategies Product Placement of Honey Puffs in the movie Kick Ass released in 2010A Brand represents an identifying mark for products or services of a company. Consumers develop a perception about various brands and the firms can use this brand perception of the customers to their advantage. But in international marketing, linguistic issues as well as cultural issues can make it difficult for firms to maintain a uniform brand identity throughout the globe. For e.g. some of the brand names might resemble abusive words in certain languages which might force the firms to tweak their brand names to suit the local customer. Also in case of acquisitions, the acquiring company might choose to go by the domestic brand identity to retain the goodwill which was created over the years. E.g. Citibank after the acquisition of Banamex in Mexico decided to retain the brand identity of Banamex which proved to be a successful strategy. International Distribution Strategies A company can benefit from a great product and a great marketing campaign to support the product only if there is a good distribution system in place to make the product available to the customer. A firm might either go for standardizing or localizing the distribution system in different countries. But standardization would work only in those countries where the distribution structure is similar. Else, a localized distribution system is preferred. For e.g. In Developed countries most of the FMCG sales would happen via big retail chains whereas in developing countries, small kirana stores play a critical role in distributing the products to the nook and corner of the country. In International distribution, most firms also have to make the decision of whether to outsource distribution or do it on its own. The following guidelines should be followed for making the decision on outsourcing distribution Political Stability: When entering a country where political stability is less, it would be advisable to outsource distribution rather than investing in own distribution network Product Characteristics: In the case of complex or high technology products which require good after sales service, it is desirable to have the firms own distribution network. When planning to enter a country, the firms should also take into account the hidden costs involved in distribution like the infrastructure of the country, the number of distribution levels, inefficiencies in retail networks, inventory stock outs etc. Gap Analysis Gap AnalysisAfter entering a country, if a company finds it not being able to achieve the expected sales, it can use Gap Analysis to take corrective actions necessary to improve its sales. The Company should first estimate the market potential for its products which is represented by the total height of all the boxes. The height till point X represents the actual sales of all the firms combined. The bottom most box represent the companys current sales. The difference between X and Y represents the sales lost to competitors. Usage gap represents the difference between the sales potential and the actual sales of the product. If the usage gap is high, the company can improve its sales by making the public more aware of the product in general. The Distribution gap represents the sales lost to its competitors because the firm is not able to distribute in certain locations which is serviced by its competitors. If the distribution gap is high, the company can improve its sales by widening its distribution network. The product line gap represents the sales lost to its competitors because the competitors are able to come up with product variations which the company unable to. This gap can be closed by investing in R D, understanding the customer needs and promoting innovation in its local organization. Finally, Competitive gap is the loss in sales which cannot be explained due to the other two reasons. This could be because the competitors have better marketing campaigns, has better good will or is able to sell it at a lower price. Investing in marketing promotions and lowering prices would be of help in closing this gap. The Indian Context Quick Facts India An Overview A population in excess of 1 billion The 4th largest economy in the world in terms of Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) The largest democracy with a stable government An independent judiciary system Plentiful natural Resources A private sector that can return significant gains on foreign direct investment Strong Entrepreneurship interest among Indians World class quality products across domains India An Overview A population in excess of 1 billion The 4th largest economy in the world in terms of Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) The largest democracy with a stable government An independent judiciary system Plentiful natural Resources A private sector that can return significant gains on foreign direct investment Strong Entrepreneurship interest among Indians World class quality products across domains India on the Upsurge Indias huge population: A Huge Market as well? Figure 1 India PopulationIndia, with a population of 1.14 billion people (According to World Bank estimates), is the second most populated country in the world. This huge population means a huge market size for most multinational firms wishing to expand its operations in India. This however, has only partial merit. Though the number of people living in the country is large, we have to consider other factors as well. Only 64% of the people are in the age group 15-64. This makes this group the only active buyers. There are other factors which need to be looked at as well, when evaluating a potential market: The Purchasing Power of the inhabitants, their buying thought process and educational status etc. Nevertheless, India, in spite of all these factors, still provides a huge market place for firms to sell their products in. Literacy Rates: The Educated Buyer Literacy rates in India are rising as can be seen from the figure. India is striving hard to provide good education to children. Setting up premier educational institutes like the IIMs, IITs and NITs has given an impetus to the education levels in the nation. Kerala has become the first state to achieve 100% literacy. Indian scholars have achieved a name for themselves globally. Figure 2 India Literacy Rates (%)We can therefore say that though a lot still needs to be done in the educational sphere, India is well on its way to claim a strong position in international terms. The impact that education has on consumer behaviour is immense. A literate consumer is an informed consumer. He can easily read between the lines and establish on his own whether a particular product will be beneficia or not. With the immense choice available in the market, an informed customer can always make an educated choice. He will also be open to new ideas, new technologies and new products and will be able to adapt to them easily. Economic Conditions: Ability to buy India has been witnessing massive drops in unemployment rate which rings in good news for global marketers as well. Decrease in unemployment would mean an increase in living standards which would in turn mean that people have the ability to buy more. Marketers have an opportunity to sell more to Indian customers. With drop in unemployment rate, the sectors most likely to grow are those dealing with basic necessities. Figure 3 India: Unemployment Rate (%)Therefore the retail sector is likely to grow the most, riding high on growth in FMCG. Along with increased purchasing power at an individual level, the overall economic growth has a huge impact on the ability to buy. Indian GDP, in purchasing power parity terms, has been on the upsurge except for the past two years (which was majorly due to the global economic downturn and the sub-prime crisis). An improving economy of a country also indicates the improved buyer status of its residents. Figure 4 India GDP (PPP) (Billion $) Thus, we can see that with the factors of population, literacy and rising economic status on its side, India presents itself as a lucrative market for firms, national as well as international. Consumer Behaviour in India: Unique Patterns India as a market, though lucrative, poses challenges of its own. The consumption behavior of Indians in some manners is quite similar to other countries, but the culture and diversity in India pose specific problem statements that are unique to India. Impact of Cultural Diversity India is a country immersed in diversity. The sheer difference in the people of India, based on caste, creed, religion, gender, economic status etc, makes the life of a marketer very difficult. It is his responsibility that a perfect product mix, customized to the satisfaction of each and every member of the society (as a potential buyer) reaches the market. For example, some part of the population is non-vegetarian while others (Jains, some Hindus) are Vegetarian. Nestle produces its 2-minute instant noodles called Maggi in vegetarian as well as non-vegetarian (Chicken) variants to cater to all segments of the market. Females/ Housewives as decision makers Women in India are the major decision makers for all consumer purchases even though it might be men who do the actual buying. Ultimately it is the women who use most of the consumer products, Washing Soap, Detergent, Cosmetics etc. It is therefore important to understand the needs of the female customers before coming up with a marketing strategy. Rise of the Middle Class The major drivers of the Indian Economy are, without a doubt, people from the Middle Class. The Indian middle class has been growing and according to studies by McKinsey it will grow to 40-60% of the population. The Low-Income classes hardly have the purchasing power to drive an economy while Higher Classes are more into personalized buying rather than standardized retail shopping. The Middle Class, on the other hand, has become more empowered. With an upswing in educational status, decrease in unemployment, and rise in average annual incomes, the Middle Class has higher disposable incomes which it uses to increase its standard of living by purchasing more and more. This is virtually a retailers dream come true! Brand Loyalty versus Desire for new options Traditionally, Indian customers have been very loyal to their brand. We all would have seen their grandparents, or granduncles/aunts buying the same brand of Toothpaste or Hair Oil from the market even though better products exist on the shelves. This was very helpful for established brands to retain their customer and posed difficulties (in terms of entry barriers) for upcoming and small firms. This mentality is changing fast. The new generation, or the Gen-Y, is very brand conscious and evaluates all its options before making any purchase. They keep in mind their notion of Cool before buying a thing as simple as a toothbrush. Brand Loyalty is a thing of the past. Kids and Teens today will change their brand as fast as the wind. Shift from Kirana Shops to Large retailers The increase in the number of options that are available to the consumer, in terms of brand, product quality, colors, packaging and what not, has created another paradigm shift in consumer behavior. Gone are the days of the Kirana Shops with limited varieties of products stored on their shelves. People these days want to have the entire range of products in front of their eyes so that they can pick and choose. They want to experience the product by holding it in their hands before making the final decision whether to buy or not. This has created solid opportunity for FMCG companies so that they can showcase their product and make sure their product catches the customers eye. They no longer have to be at the mercy of established players for market share. Durability as a necessary quality Indian customers have traditionally desired durable and rugged products. They buy products with the intention of long time use and do not believe much in use-and-throw items. For example, it is only recently that the use and throw paper cups and plates are catching on. Indians generally dont prefer them as they find them to be more expensive. Another example would be the case of the Nokia-1100 phone, marketed with the tagline Made for India. Nokia 1100 was a sturdy phone, waterproof rubber coated and stain resistant, ideal for Indian farmers and truck drivers who do rough work every day and stand a chance of spoiling their phone. Larger/Joint Families and Bulk Purchases Families in India are larger compared to their international counterparts. Some of the households run as joint families. The major effect that this has is bulk buying. People will buy goods for the entire family in one shot. This means that companies need to come up with large, super saver packs for their products. On the other hand, there exist a significant number of students, bachelors and small households that prefer smaller packaging and refills. The challenge for firms is to establish the right package size and the amount to produce in each size. Impulsive buying With increased disposable income due to higher salaries, newly earning professionals (people straight out of college) tend to do a lot of impulsive shopping i.e. buying something that is not required only because it caught your eye. With more and more youngsters joining the impulsive buyers brigade, India is a sellers heaven. Adapting to The Indian context Core Product Basic Product Expected Product Augmented Product Potential Product India, as a market, poses unique opportunities and challenges to companies contemplating an entry. With a rapidly growing middle class and a promising growth rate, India is a lucrative destination for companies facing saturation in demand back home. A foray in Indian market, on the other hand, is not without its own perils. Companies who have ignored the unique Indian context in its marketing strategy have failed miserably while those who have given due attention to its type and taste have reaped enormous profits. Following are some of the factors which differentiate Indian context from the global one and must be taken into account by companies before entering Indian markets: India lives in villages: With 85% of India living in villages having about half of Indias buying potential, a company planning an entry in India(particularly FMCG) has to strategize for rural marketing. It cant think of succeeding by focusing on metros alone. All 4Ps need to be customized while tapping this market: Product: As per Kotler, there are various levels of product offering as one adds value to the core product (shown in the adj. fig) With low per capita incomes and a widening economic disparity between urban and rural India, the rural customer is highly price conscious and looks for the basic features. So, only basic or expected product should be marketed in rural India. Moreover the rural customer looks for durability and sturdiness in the product Promotion: An advertisement designed to promote a product in a metro or an urban set up needs to be customized to rural audience for it be effective in appeal to rural customers. Moreover, traditional media needs to be employed to make the advertisement reach rural audience. The use of numerous languages and dialects across the country warrants further customization of the promotion program .Literacy level being very low in rural India, conveying the message to the rural customer requires an entirely different approach. Pricing: With a highly price sensitive population, companies usually resort to aggressive pricing to succeed in rural markets. They yearn to achieve huge volumes to offset the low margins. Place: Distribution poses a serious challenge while marketing in rural India. To make more ground-contacts with the rural customers some channels which can be used are RMVS (Rural Marketing Vehicles) which are basically company delivery vans which are used both for promotion and sales. As per Indian Market Research Bureau, annual sales at melas in Indian rural countryside is around 3500 crore which offer a lucrative marketing ground for companies having rural aspirations. Infrastructure: As compared to western countries, India has a poor logistics infrastructure posing as a serious supply chain bottleneck. The distribution system has to be adapted to take care of this constraint .Inventory levels down the value chain cannot be allowed to go too low. While companies can reap the benefits of keeping a lean inventory in countries where there is a strong logistics network. By proper use of technology like monitoring POS data and analyzing it centrally, however, can give a competitive advantage in such situations. Other infrastructural issues include power deficit and poor internet penetration. The Cultural Aspect: As per Carl Jung Culture is the collective unconscious that is built over centuries and passed from generation to generation. Failure to appreciate the cultural differences between markets can make even behemoths to fail miserably(e.g. Disneyland in Germany).To complicate the situation more, the heterogeneity in India with respect to culture is immense and moving from one corner of the country to another is like changing a nation. No doubt there are commonalities as well. Let us evaluate India on Hofstedes cultural dimensions(which by large is the most widely accepted model for studying cultural differences) All these differences have huge implications on marketing strategy of a company e.g. an advertisement designed for a population having high masculinity index may not appeal an audience with low masculinity Index. Segmentation and Demographics: The usual demographic bases of segmentation like age, income, education etc. progressed to non demographic bases like values ,tastes and preferences .Rediscovering the elementary bases of segmentation taking into account the ground level realities can work wonders instead e.g. Introduction of Emami Fair and Handsome for men was based on the discovery that men were using the fairness cream meant for women and hence there was an unmet demand. Another example is the introduction of Allen Solly Women by Madura Garments based